This overview traces the hierarchy of a computer system, from the physical switches (transistors) to the high-level software that runs on them. For more in-depth study, you can explore textbooks like Logic Gates, Circuits, Processors, Compilers and Computers or specialized educational materials from TU Eindhoven . 1. Logic Gates: The Fundamental Building Blocks

De Morgan and simplification

5. Chapter 4: Compilers and Software

• Hazards: Data dependency (need result of previous instruction) → stalls.

"The Elements of Computing Systems" (Nand to Tetras)

By Noam Nisan & Shimon Schocken

Converts int x = a + 42; into tokens: [KEYWORD_INT] [IDENTIFIER "x"] [OPERATOR_ASSIGN] [IDENTIFIER "a"] [OPERATOR_PLUS] [LITERAL_INT 42] [SEMICOLON]

4. The Compiler: The Great Translator

NAND/NOR

: These are "functionally complete," meaning any other logical operation can be built using only these types of gates. 2. Building Complexity: Digital Circuits

• Example: t1 = y; t2 = 5; t3 = t1 + t2; x = t3;